oleifera reduces the expression of nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and COX-2, as well as the production of inflammatory indicators, via reducing the phosphorylation of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway (Tang et al
Brewer et al
It highlights critical challenges in the field, including scalability, regulatory hurdles, and clinical translation, and proposes future directions to support the development of cost-effective and accessible therapies
While the emphysema state results in loss of alveolar spaces and low sputum production, the bronchitis phenotype results in narrowing of the airways as well as blocking of the alveolar spaces with mucus obstruction leading to chronic cough, sputum production, and exacerbations (Szalontai et al., 2021
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